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Modern Chinese trace their origins to a cradle of civilization in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. The semi-legendary Xia dynasty in the 21st century BCE and the well-attested Shang and Zhou dynasties developed a bureaucratic political system to serve hereditary monarchies, or dynasties. Chinese writing, Chinese classic literature, and the Hundred Schools of Thought emerged during this period and influenced China and its neighbors for centuries to come. In the third century BCE, Qin"s wars of unification created the first Chinese empire, the short-lived Qin dynasty. The Qin was followed by the more stable Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), which established a model for nearly two millennia in which the Chinese empire was one of the world"s foremost economic powers. The empire expanded, fractured, and reunified; was conquered and reestablished; absorbed foreign religions and ideas; and made world-leading scientific advances, such as the Four Great Inventions: gunpowder, paper, the compass, and printing. After centuries of disunity following the fall of the Han, the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties reunified the empire. The multi-ethnic Tang welcomed foreign trade and culture that came over the Silk Road and adapted Buddhism to Chinese needs. The early modern Song dynasty (960–1279) became increasingly urban and commercial. The civilian scholar-officials or literati used the examination system and the doctrines of Neo-Confucianism to replace the military aristocrats of earlier dynasties. The Mongol invasion established the Yuan dynasty in 1279, but the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) re-established Han Chinese control. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty nearly doubled the empire"s territory and established a multi-ethnic state that was the basis of the modern Chinese nation, but suffered heavy losses to foreign imperialism in the 19th century.

The Chinese monarchy collapsed in 1912 with the Xinhai Revolution, when the Republic of China (ROC) replaced the Qing dynasty. In its early years as a republic, the country underwent a period of instability known as the "Warlord Era" before mostly reunifying in 1928 under a Nationalist government. A civil war between the nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) began in 1927. Japan invaded China in 1937, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War and temporarily halting the civil war. The surrender and expulsion of Japanese forces from China in 1945 left a power vacuum in the country, which led to renewed fighting between the CCP and the Kuomintang. The civil war ended in 1949division of Chinese territory; the CCP established the People"s Republic of China on the mainland while the Kuomintang-led ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan.the sole legitimate government of China, although the United Nations has recognized the PRC as the sole representation since 1971. From 1959 to 1961, the PRC implemented an economic and social campaign called the "Great Leap Forward" that resulted in a sharp economic decline and an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths, mostly through man-made famine. From 1966 to 1976, the turbulent period of political and social chaos within China known as the Cultural Revolution led to greater economic and educational decline, with millions being purged or subjected to either persecution or "politicide" based on political categories. Since then, the Chinese government has rebuked some of the earlier Maoist policies, conducting a series of political and economic reforms since 1978 that have greatly raised Chinese standards of living, and increased life expectancies.

Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, China is the world"s largest economy by GDP at purchasing power parity, the second-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the second-wealthiest country. The country is one of the fastest-growing major economies and is the world"s largest manufacturer and exporter, as well as the second-largest importer. China is a recognized nuclear-weapon state with the world"s largest standing army by military personnel and the second-largest defense budget. China is considered to be a potential superpower due to its high level of innovation, economic potential, growing military strength, and influence in international affairs.

The Shang was conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou, no longer fully obeyed the Zhou king, and continually waged war with each other during the 300-year Spring and Autumn period. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were only seven powerful states left.

After the end of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known as Three Kingdoms followed,one of the Four Classics of Chinese literature. At its end, Wei was swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war upon the ascension of a developmentally disabled emperor; the Five Barbarians then invaded and ruled northern China as the Sixteen States. The Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei, whose Emperor Xiaowen reversed his predecessors" apartheid policies and enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects, largely integrating them into Chinese culture. In the south, the general Liu Yu secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the Liu Song. The various successors of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 581. The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and imperial examination system, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a failed war in northern Korea provoked widespread unrest.

Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.Tang dynasty retained control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road,Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa,Chang"an a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the An Lushan Rebellion in the 8th century.separatist situation in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and Khitan Liao. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.

After Yuan Shikai"s death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.Chiang Kai-shek, the then Principal of the Republic of China Military Academy, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition.Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen"s San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the communist-led People"s Liberation Army (PLA), against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the PLA retreated in the Long March, until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi"an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.

The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.Soviet Union, were referred to as "trusteeship of the powerful"Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations.Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.surrender of Japan in 1945, Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was handed over to Chinese control. However, the validity of this handover is controversial, in that whether Taiwan"s sovereignty was legally transferred and whether China is a legitimate recipient, due to complex issues that arose from the handling of Japan"s surrender, resulting in the unresolved political status of Taiwan, which is a flashpoint of potential war between China and Taiwan. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.

After Mao"s death, the Gang of Four was quickly arrested by Hua Guofeng and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, and instituted significant economic reforms. The CCP loosened governmental control over citizens" personal lives, and the communes were gradually disbanded in favor of working contracted to households. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses.increasingly open-market environment.constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnations and sanctions against the Chinese government from various foreign countries.

China is also the world"s leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, with $52 billion invested in 2011 alone;hydroelectric power: a total installed capacity of 197 GW makes China the largest hydroelectric power producer in the world.installed solar photovoltaics system and wind power system in the world.Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the world"s largest,renewable energy in China.crude oil in 2022.

The main body of the Chinese constitution declares that "the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)."Marxist–Leninist state,CCP general secretary (party leader) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the informal paramount leader.Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012, and was re-elected on 25 October 2017.CCP constitution, its highest body is the National Congress held every five years.Central Committee, who then elects the party"s Politburo, Politburo Standing Committee and general secretary, the top leadership of the country.secretary of the CCP committee of a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor.

The nearly 3,000 member National People"s Congress (NPC) is constitutionally the "highest state organ of power",rubber stamp" body.NPC Standing Committee, around 150 member body elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months.people"s congress system", local people"s congresses at the lowest leveleight minor parties having nominal representation in the condition of upholding CCP leadership.

The People"s Liberation Army (PLA) is considered one of the world"s most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades.Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), the Rocket Force (PLARF) and the Strategic Support Force (PLASSF). Its nearly 2.2 million active duty personnel is the largest in the world. The PLA holds the world"s third-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons,second-largest in the world. According to SIPRI estimates, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent of GDP.Central Military Commission (CMC) of the party and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one organization. The chairman of the CMC is the commander-in-chief of the PLA, with the officeholder also generally being the CCP general secretary, making them the paramount leader of China.

China and other major developing economies by GDP per capita at purchasing-power parity, 1990–2013. The rapid economic growth of China (blue) is readily apparent.

China has the world"s second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP,world"s largest economy in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP).fastest-growing major economies,economic reforms in 1978.500 largest companies, 145 are headquartered in China.

China is a member of the WTO and is the world"s largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$4.62 trillion in 2018.largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods.Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$3.1 trillion as of 2019,foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $253 billion.US public debt, holding trillions of dollars worth of U.S. Treasury bonds.counterfeit goods.

After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.Four Modernizations,

The data of Chongqing in the list is the data of "Metropolitan Developed Economic Area", which contains two parts: "City Proper" and "Metropolitan Area". The "City proper" are consist of 9 districts: Yuzhong, Dadukou, Jiangbei, Shapingba, Jiulongpo, Nan"an, Beibei, Yubei, & Banan, has the urban population of 5,646,300 as of 2018. And the "Metropolitan Area" are consist of 12 districts: Fuling, Changshou, Jiangjin, Hechuan, Yongchuan, Nanchuan, Qijiang, Dazu, Bishan, Tongliang, Tongnan, & Rongchang, has the urban population of 5,841,700.

As of 2021, China has over 3,000 universities, with over 44.3 million students enrolled in mainland China and 240 million Chinese citizens have received high education, making China the largest higher education system in the world.number of top universities (the highest in Asia & Oceania region).Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU).Tsinghua University and Peking University) in Asia and emerging economies according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings.Fudan, Zhejiang, and Shanghai Jiao Tong according to the QS World University Rankings.C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education.

The government of the People"s Republic of China officially espouses state atheism,antireligious campaigns to this end.State Administration for Religious Affairs.Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China"s constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.

Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty.Chinese classic texts present a wide range of thoughts and subjects including calendar, military, astrology, herbology, geography and many others.Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era.classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively.Chinese historiography began with the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore.gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include wuxia fictions of Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng,East Asian cultural sphere.

Hernández, Javier C. (25 October 2017). "China"s "Chairman of Everything": Behind Xi Jinping"s Many Titles". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from . Retrieved 14 January 2020. Mr. Xi"s most important title is general secretary, the most powerful position in the Communist Party. In China"s one party system, this ranking gives him virtually unchecked authority over the government.

Phillips, Tom (24 October 2017). "Xi Jinping becomes most powerful leader since Mao with China"s change to constitution". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2017.

"Global PV capacity is expected to reach 969GW by 2025". Power Technology | Energy News and Market Analysis. 21 December 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2019.

"Law of the People"s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)". Chinese Government. 31 October 2000. Archived from the original on 24 July 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013. For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.

Wound healing, especially for chronic wounds, is a complicated process with numerous steps, creating difficulties for developing treatment approaches for chronic wounds. Molecular self‐assembly has become a powerful tool for constructing hydrogels, which are finding increasing applications in biomedicine. Peptide‐based self‐assembling hydrogels are inherently attractive due to their various advantages.

1) There are more than 800 different GPCRs in human body, 45 structures were resolved in class A, and only 4 pairs of single static structures have been analyzed in details in this report. While the analysis aiming to reveal a shared GPCR activation mechanism is a meaningful attempt, it is premature to claim a "universal" activation mechanism. It would be surprising if the activation elements involved in Gs coupling and Gi coupling receptors are entirely conserved, given that the dramatic difference in the outward movement in the cytoplasmic end of TM6 and that the coupling of GPCRs with different intracellular transducers is subjected to different conformational changes. At best we can hope that the proposed mechanism provides a framework and a common language for future structural/mechanistic analysis of GPCRs, and different GPCRs (especially GPCRs of the A family) may to variously degrees and in different aspects resemble proposed mechanism. The entire manuscript, especially the title and the Abstract, needs revision in recognition of this understanding.