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Pressure cooking is the process of cooking food under high pressure steam and water or a water-based cooking liquid, in a sealed vessel known as a pressure cooker. High pressure limits boiling, and creates higher cooking temperatures which cook food far more quickly.

The pressure cooker was invented in the seventeenth century by the physicist Denis Papin, and works by expelling air from the vessel, and trapping steam produced from the boiling liquid. This is used to raise the internal pressure up to one atmosphere above ambient and gives higher cooking temperatures between 100–121 °C (212–250 °F). Together with high thermal heat transfer from steam it permits cooking in between a half and a quarter the time of conventional boiling.

According to New York Times Magazine, 37% of U.S. households owned at least one pressure cooker in 1950. By 2011, that rate dropped to only 20%. Part of the decline has been attributed to fear of explosion, although this is extremely rare with modern pressure cookers, along with competition from other fast cooking devices, such as the microwave oven.

In 1679, French physicist Denis Papin, better known for his studies on steam, invented the airtight cooker used steam pressure to raise the water"s boiling point, thus cooking food more quickly. In 1681 Papin presented his invention to the Royal Society of London as a scientific study; he was later elected as a member.

In 1918, Spain granted a patent for the pressure cooker to José Alix Martínez from Zaragoza. Martínez named it the olla exprés, literally "express cooking pot", under patent number 71143 in the Boletín Oficial de la Propiedad Industrial.360 recipes for cooking with a pressure cooker.

In 1935, the Automa pressure cooker was introduced. Mountaineers attempting to climb Mount Everest took it along with them to cook in higher altitudes.

In 1938, Alfred Vischer presented his invention, the Flex-Seal Speed Cooker, in New York City. Vischer"s pressure cooker was the first designed for home use, and its success led to competition among American and European manufacturers.1939 New York World"s Fair, the National Pressure Cooker Company, later renamed National Presto Industries, introduced its own pressure cooker.

Today, most pressure cookers are variations on the first-generation cookers, with the addition of new safety features such as a mechanism that prevents the cooker from being opened until it is entirely depressurized.

These include an electric heat source that is automatically regulated to maintain the operating temperature and pressure. They also include a spring-loaded valve (as described above) and are typically non venting during cooking.

Second-generation electric, with digital controller. Delayed cooking becomes possible and the controller shows a countdown timer when working pressure is reached.

Third-generation electric, with smart programming, which includes pre-set cooking times and settings based on heating intensity, temperature, pressure and duration.

Some pressure cookers are multifunctional (multicookers): pressure cooker, saute/browning, slow cooker, rice cooker, egg cooker, yogurt maker, steamer, sous vide, canner, and stockpot warmer that can also be used to keep cooked food warm.Ninja Foodi pressure cooker, which was the first pressure cooker that could also air fry, several other pressure cooker manufacturers, including Instant Pot, have come out with their own pressure cookers that can air fry, which are now known as pressure air fryers. Pressure air fryers have two separate lids, one for pressure cooking, and one for air frying.

At standard pressure the boiling point of water is 100 °C (212 °F). With any food containing or cooked with water, once the temperature reaches the boiling point, any excess heat causes some of the water to vaporize into steam efficiently carrying away heat keeping the food temperature at 100 °C.

In a sealed pressure cooker, as the water boils, the steam is trapped in the cooker which raises the pressure. However, the boiling point of water increases with pressure resulting in superheated water.

In a sealed pressure cooker the volume and amount of steam is fixed, so the temperature can be controlled either directly or by setting the pressure (such as with a pressure release valve).

For example, if the pressure reaches 1 bar or 100 kPa (15 psi) above the existing atmospheric pressure, the water will have reached a temperature of approximately 120 °C (248 °F) which cooks the food much faster.

Pressure cookers also use steam and water to rapidly transfer the heat to the food and all parts of the vessel. While, compared to an oven, a pressure cooker"s 120 °C is not particularly high, ovens contain air which is subject to thermal boundary layer effects which greatly slows heating, whereas pressure cookers flush air from the cooking vessel during warm up and replace it with hot steam. For items not placed within the liquid, as this steam condenses on the food it transfers water"s latent heat of vaporization, which is extremely large (2.275 kJ/g), to the surface, rapidly bringing the surface of the food up to cooking temperature. Because the steam condenses and drips away, no significant boundary layer forms and heat transfer is exceptionally efficient, and food heats much faster and more evenly.

However some recipes require browning to develop flavors as during roasting or frying. Higher temperatures are attainable with conventional cooking where the surface of the food can dry out. Such browning occurs via the Maillard reaction, at temperatures higher than the roughly 120 °C (248 °F) achieved in pressure cooking. Because those temperatures are not reached in pressure cooking, foods are generally browned by searing them, either in the open pressure cooker or another pan beforehand.

A pressure cooker can be used to compensate for lower atmospheric pressure at high elevations. The boiling point of water drops by approximately 1°C per every 294 metres of altitude (see: High-altitude cooking), causing the boiling point of water to be significantly below the 100 °C (212 °F) at standard pressure. This is problematic because temperatures above roughly 90°C are necessary to cook many common vegetables in a reasonable time. For example, on the summit of Everest (8,848 m (29,029 ft)), the boiling point of water would be only 70 °C (158 °F). Without the use of a pressure cooker, many boiled foods may remain undercooked, as described in Charles Darwin"s

Having crossed the Peuquenes [Piuquenes], we descended into a mountainous country, intermediate between the two main ranges, and then took up our quarters for the night. We were now in the republic of Mendoza. The elevation was probably not under 11,000 feet (3,400 m) [...]. At the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from the diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower temperature than it does in a less lofty country; the case being the converse of that of a Papin"s digester. Hence the potatoes, after remaining for some hours in the boiling water, were nearly as hard as ever. The pot was left on the fire all night, and next morning it was boiled again, but yet the potatoes were not cooked.

When pressure cooking at high altitudes, cooking times need to be increased by approximately 5% for every 300 m (980 ft) above 610 m (2,000 ft) elevation. Since the regulators work off the pressure differential between interior and ambient pressure, the absolute pressure in the interior of a pressure cooker will always be lower at higher altitudes.

Weight is a concern with backpackers, so mountaineering pressure cookers are designed to operate at a lower differential pressure than stove-top units. This enables them to use thinner, and therefore lighter materials. Generally, the goal is to raise the cooking temperature enough to make cooking possible and to conserve fuel by reducing heat lost through boiling.Sherpas often use pressure cookers in base camp.

Pressure cookers employ one or more regulators to control the pressure/temperature. All types have a calibrated pressure relief valve, as well as one or more emergency valves.

With the simplest types, once the desired pressure is reached, the valve opens, and steam escapes cooling the vessel and limiting the temperature. More advanced stovetop models have pressure indicators that permit the user to adjust the heat to prevent the steam from escaping. Third generation types automatically measure the state of the vessel and control the power so as to not release steam in operation.

Pressure cookers are available in different capacities for cooking larger or smaller amounts, with 6 litres" capacity being common. The maximum capacity of food is less than the advertised capacity because pressure cookers can only be filled up to 2/3 full, depending on ingredients and liquid (see Safety features section).

Because of the forces that pressure cookers must withstand, they are usually heavier than conventional pots of similar size. The increased weight of conventional pressure cookers makes them unsuitable for applications in which saving weight is a priority, such as camping. Nonetheless, small, lightweight pressure cookers are available for mountain climbers

A gasket or sealing ring, made from either rubber or silicone, forms a gas-tight seal that does not allow air or steam to escape between the lid and pan. Normally, the only way steam can escape is through a regulator on the lid while the cooker is pressurized. If the regulator becomes blocked, a safety valve provides a backup escape route for steam.

The twist-on design has slots on the lid engaging with flanges on the body, similar to a lid on a glass jar, that works by placing the lid on the pot and twisting it about 30° to lock it in place. A common modern design, it has easily implemented locking features that prevent the removal of the lid while under pressure.

The bolt-down design has flanges on both its lid and its body for bolts to be passed through, and usually uses wingnuts that hinge on the body and so are never fully removed from the cooker; this sealing design is typically used for larger units such as canning retorts and autoclaves. It is very simple to produce, and it can seal with simple and inexpensive gaskets.

The internally fitted lid design employs an oval lid that is placed inside and presses outward; the user inserts the lid at an angle, then turns the lid to align it with the pot opening on top because the lid is larger than the opening. A spring arrangement holds the lid in place until the pressure forms and holds the lid tightly against the body, preventing removal until the pressure is released.

Gaskets (sealing rings) require special care when cleaning (e.g., not washed with kitchen knives), unlike a standard lid for a saucepan. Food debris, fats, and oils must be cleaned from the gasket after every use. Gasket/sealing rings need replacing with a new one about once a year (or sooner if it is damaged e.g. a small split). A very dry gasket can make it difficult or impossible to close the lid. Smearing the gasket sparingly with vegetable oil alleviates this problem (using too much vegetable oil can make the gasket swell and prevent it sealing properly). A gasket that has lost its flexibility makes bringing the cooker up to pressure difficult as steam can escape before sufficient pressure is generated to provide an adequate seal; this is usually a sign that the gasket needs replacing with a new one. Oiling the gasket with vegetable oil may alleviate the problem temporarily, but a new gasket is often required.

Early pressure cookers equipped with only a primary safety valve risked explosion from food blocking the release valve. On modern pressure cookers, food residues blocking the steam vent or the liquid boiling dry will trigger additional safety devices. Modern pressure cookers sold from reputable manufacturers have sufficient safety features to prevent the pressure cooker itself from exploding. When excess pressure is released by a safety mechanism, debris of food being cooked may also be ejected with the steam, which is loud and forceful. This can be avoided if the pressure cooker is regularly cleaned and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer"s instructions and never overfilled with food and/or liquid.

Modern pressure cookers typically have two or three redundant safety valves and additional safety features, such as an interlock lid that prevents the user from opening the lid when the internal pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure, preventing accidents from a sudden release of hot liquid, steam and food. If safety mechanisms are not correctly in place, the cooker will not pressurize the contents. Pressure cookers should be operated only after reading the instruction manual, to ensure correct usage. Pressure cooker failure is dangerous: a large quantity of scalding steam and water will be forcefully ejected and if the lid separates it may be propelled with considerable force. Some cookers with an internally fitted lid may be particularly dangerous upon failure as the lid fits tighter with increasing pressure, preventing the lid from deforming and venting around the edges. Due to these dangers pressure cookers are generally over-engineered in a safety regard and some countries even have regulations to prevent the sale of non-compliant cookers.

For first generation pressure cookers with a weighted valve or "jiggler", the primary safety valve or regulator is usually a weighted stopper, commonly called "the rocker" or "vent weight". This weighted stopper is lifted by the steam pressure, allowing excess pressure to be released. There is a backup pressure release mechanism that releases pressure quickly if the primary pressure release mechanism fails (e.g., food jams the steam discharge path). One such method is a hole in the lid that is blocked by a low melting point alloy plug and another is a rubber grommet with a metal insert at the center. At a sufficiently high pressure, the grommet will distort and the insert will blow out of its mounting hole to release pressure. If the pressure continues to increase, the grommet itself will blow out to release pressure. These safety devices usually require replacement when activated by excess pressure. Newer pressure cookers may have a self-resettable spring device, fixed onto the lid, that releases excess pressure.

On second generation pressure cookers, a common safety feature is the gasket, which expands to release excess pressure downward between the lid and the pot. This release of excess pressure is forceful and sufficient to extinguish the flame of a gas stove.

The recommended maximum fill levels of food/liquid avoids blockage of the steam valve or developing excess pressure: two-thirds full with solid food, half full for liquids and foods that foam and froth (e.g., rice, pasta; adding a tablespoon of cooking oil minimizes foaming),pulses (e.g., lentils).

Pressure cookers are typically made of aluminum (aluminium) or stainless steel. Aluminum pressure cookers may be stamped, polished, or anodized, but all are unsuitable for the dishwasher. They are cheaper, but the aluminum is reactive to acidic foods, whose flavors are changed in the reactions, and less durable than stainless steel pressure cookers.

Higher-quality stainless steel pressure cookers are made with heavy, three-layer, or copper-clad bottoms (heat spreader) for uniform heating because stainless steel has lower thermal conductivity. Most modern stainless steel cookers are dishwasher safe, although some manufacturers may recommend washing by hand. Some pressure cookers have a non-stick interior.

Pressure cooking always requires a water-based liquid to generate the steam to raise the pressure within the cooker. Pressure cooking cannot be used for cooking methods that produce little steam such as roasting, pan frying, or deep frying. A minimum quantity of liquid is required to create and maintain pressure, as indicated in the manufacturer"s instruction manual. For venting cookers more liquid is required for longer cooking times. This is not desirable for food requiring much less liquid, but recipes and books for pressure cookers take this into account.

Food is placed inside the pressure cooker with a small amount of water or other liquid such as stock. Food is either cooked in the liquid or above the liquid for steaming; the latter method prevents the transfer of flavors from the liquid.

Sauces which contain starch thickeners can tend to burn onto the interior base of the pressure cooker which may prevent the cooker from reaching operating pressure. Because of this issue, sauces may require thickening or reduction after pressure cooking.

With pot in pot pressure cooking, some or all of the food is placed in an elevated pot on a trivet above water or another food item which generates the steam. This permits the cooking of multiple foods separately, and allows the use of minimal water mixed with the food in the pot which permits thick sauces which would otherwise scorch onto the bottom of the pan to be cooked.

The lid is closed, the pressure setting is chosen and the pressure cooker is heated to boil the liquid. The cooker fills with steam and vents air. As the internal temperature rises, the pressure rises until it reaches the desired gauge pressure.

It usually takes several minutes for the pressure cooker to reach the selected pressure level. It can take around 10 minutes or longer depending on: the quantity of food, the temperature of the food (cold or frozen food delays pressurization), the amount of liquid, the power of the heat source and the size of the pressure cooker. There is typically a pop-up indicator that shows that the cooker has pressure inside, but it does not reliably signal that the cooker has reached the selected pressure. The pop-up indicator shows the state of the interlock which prevents the lid from being opened while there is any internal pressure. Manufacturers may use their own terminology for it, such as calling it a "locking indicator."

Timing the recipe begins when the selected pressure/pressure is reached. Once the cooker reaches full pressure, the heat is lowered to maintain the pressure. With pressure cookers accurate timing is essential using an audible timer.

With first generation designs, the pressure regulator weight begins levitating above its nozzle, allowing excess steam to escape. In second generation pressure cookers, either a relief valve subsequently opens, releasing steam to prevent the pressure from rising any further or a rod rises with markers to indicate the pressure level, without constantly venting steam. At this stage, the heat source is reduced to the lowest possible heat that still maintains pressure, as extra heat wastes energy and increases liquid loss. In third generation pressure cookers, the device will detect the vessel has reached the required cooking temperature/pressure and will maintain it for the programmed time, generally without further loss of steam.

Recipes for foods using raising agents such as steamed puddings call for gentle pre-steaming, without pressure, in order to activate the raising agents prior to cooking and achieve a light, fluffy texture.

Small containers such as plastic pudding containers can be used in a pressure cooker, if the containers (and any covering used) can withstand temperatures of 130 °C (266 °F) and are not placed directly on the interior base. The containers can be used for cooking foods that are prone to burning on the base of the pressure cooker. A lid for the container may be used if the lid allows some steam to come into contact with the food and the lid is securely fitted; an example is foil or greaseproof paper, pleated in the center and tied securely with string. Containers that are cracked or have otherwise sustained damage are not suitable. Cooking time is longer when using covered containers because the food is not in direct contact with the steam. Since non-metal containers are poorer heat conductors, the type of container material stated in the recipe cannot be substituted without affecting the outcome. For example, if the recipe time is calculated using a stainless steel container and a plastic container is used instead, the recipe will be undercooked, unless the cooking time is increased. Containers with thicker sides, e.g., oven-proof glass or ceramic containers, which are slower to conduct heat, will add about 10 minutes to the cooking time. Liquid can be added inside the container when pressure cooking foods such as rice, which need to absorb liquid in order to cook properly.

The flavor of some foods, such as meat and onions, can be improved by gently cooking with a little pre-heated cooking oil, butter or other fat in the open pressure cooker over medium heat for stove-top models (unless the manufacturer advises against this) before pressure cooking, while avoiding overheating the empty pressure cooker not heating the empty cooker with the lid and gasket in place to avoid damage. Electric pressure cookers usually have a "saute" or "brown" option for frying ingredients. The pressure cooker needs to cool briefly before adding liquid; otherwise some of the liquid will evaporate instantly, possibly leaving insufficient liquid for the entire pressure cooking time; if deglazing the pan, more liquid may need to be added.

After cooking, there are three ways of releasing the pressure, either quickly or slowly, before the lid can be opened. Recipes for pressure cookers state which release method is required at the end of the cooking time for proper results. Failure to follow the recommendation may result in food that is under-cooked or over-cooked.

To avoid opening the pressure cooker too often while cooking different vegetables with varying cooking times, the vegetables that take longer to cook can be cut into smaller pieces and vegetables that cook faster can be cut into larger pieces.

To inspect the food, the pressure cooker needs to be opened, which halts the cooking process. With a conventional saucepan, this can be done in a matter of seconds by visually inspecting the food.

This method is sometimes called a quick release, not to be confused with the cold water release (mentioned below). It involves the quick release of vapor by gradually lifting (or removing) the valve, pushing a button, or turning a dial. It is most suitable to interrupt cooking to add food that cooks faster than what is already in the cooker. For example, since meat takes longer to cook than vegetables, it is necessary to add vegetables to stew later so that it will cook only for the last few minutes. Unlike the cold water release method, this release method does not cool down the pressure cooker. Releasing the steam with care avoids the risk of being scalded by the rapid release of hot steam. This release method is not suitable for foods that foam and froth while cooking; the hot contents might spray outwards due to the pressure released from the steam vent. Pressure cookers should be operated with caution when releasing vapour through the valve, especially while cooking foamy foods and liquids (lentils, beans, grains, milk, gravy, etc.)

The natural release method allows the pressure to drop slowly. This is achieved by removing the pressure cooker from the heat source and allowing the pressure to lower without action. It takes approximately 10 to 15 minutes (possibly longer) for the pressure to disappear before the lid can be opened. On many pressure cookers, a coloured indicator pin will drop when the pressure has gone. This natural release method is recommended for foods that foam and froth during cooking, such as rice, legumes, or recipes with raising agents such as steamed puddings. The texture and tenderness of meat cooked in a pressure cooker can be improved by using the natural release method. The natural release method finishes cooking foods or recipes that have longer cooking times because the inside of the pressure cooker stays hot. This method is not recommended for foods that require very short cooking times, otherwise the food overcooks.

This method is the fastest way of releasing pressure with portable pressure cookers, but can be dangerous if performed incorrectly. Hence it is safer to release pressure by using the other methods. The manufacturer"s instruction book may advise against the cold water release or require it to be performed differently.

The cold water release method involves using slow running cold tap water, over the edge of the pressure cooker lid, being careful to avoid the steam vent or any other valves or outlets, and never immersing the pressure cooker under water, otherwise steam can be ejected from under the lid, which could cause scalding injury to the user; also the pressure cooker lid can be permanently damaged by an internal vacuum if water gets sucked into the pressure cooker, since the incoming water blocks the inrush of air.

The cold water release is most suitable for foods with short cooking times. It takes about 20 seconds for the cooker to cool down enough to lower the pressure so that it can be safely opened. This method is not suitable for electric pressure cookers, as they are not immersible. This type of pressure cooker cannot be opened with a cold water quick-release method.

The cold water release method is not recommended when cooking pulses e.g. red kidney beans, as the sudden release of pressure can cause the bean to burst its skin.

Most pressure cookers have a cooking (operating) pressure setting between 0.8–1 bar (11.6–15 psi) (gauge) so the pressure cooker operates at 1.8 to 2.0 bar (absolute). The standard cooking pressure of 15 psi gauge was determined by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1917. At this pressure, water boils at 121 °C (250 °F) (described in vapour pressure of water article).

The higher temperature causes food to cook faster; cooking times can typically be reduced to one-third of the time for conventional cooking methods. The actual cooking time also depends on the pressure release method used after timing Christmas puddings are typically timed according to their weight. Frozen foods need extra cooking time to allow for thawing.

When pressure cooking at 1 bar/15 psi (gauge), approximate cooking times are one minute for shredded cabbage, seven minutes for boiled potatoes (if cut small, not diced) and three minutes for fresh green beans. If the pressure is released naturally after timing

Some recipes may require cooking at lower than 1 bar/15 psi (gauge) e.g. fresh vegetables, as these can easily overcook. Many pressure cookers have 2 or more selectable pressure settings or weights.

Some pressure cookers have a lower or higher maximum pressure than 1 bar/15 psi (gauge) or can be adjusted to different pressures for some recipes; cooking times will increase or decrease accordingly. This is typically done by having different regulator weights or different pressure or temperature settings. Some pressure cookers operate at lower pressures than others. If the recipe is devised for a higher pressure and the pressure cooker does not reach that pressure, the cooking time can be increased to compensate.

Less energy is required than that of boiling, steaming, or oven cooking. Since less water or liquid has to be heated, the food reaches its cooking temperature faster. Using more liquid than necessary wastes energy because it takes longer to heat up; the liquid quantity is stated in the recipe. Pressure cookers can use much less liquid than the amount required for boiling or steaming in an ordinary saucepan. It is not necessary to immerse food in water. The minimum quantity of water or liquid used in the recipe to keep the pressure cooker filled with steam is sufficient. With non venting pressure cookers, steam isn"t continually escaping, thus evaporation losses are non existent once it has reached pressure. Overall, energy used by pressure cookers can be as much as 70% lower than used by cooking in a pan.

Because of this, vitamins and minerals are not leached (dissolved) away by water, as they would be if food were boiled in large amounts of water. Due to the shorter cooking time, vitamins are preserved relatively well during pressure cooking.

Several foods can be cooked together in the pressure cooker, either for the same amount of time or added later for different times. Manufacturers provide steamer baskets to allow more foods to be cooked together inside the pressure cooker.

Not only is this steam energy transmitted quickly to food, it is also transmitted rapidly to any micro-organisms that are present, easily killing even the deadliest types that are able to survive at the boiling point. Because of this enhanced germ killing ability, a pressure cooker can be used as an effective sanitizer for jam pots, glass baby bottles, or for water while camping.

Some foods are not recommended for pressure cooking. Foods such as noodles, pasta, cranberries, cereals and oatmeal can expand too much, froth and sputter, potentially blocking the steam vent and creating an unsafe condition.

An ≥ 121 °C) is a type of pressure cooker used by laboratories and hospitals to sterilize equipment. A stovetop autoclave is essentially a higher-pressure cooker with a gauge, used as an autoclave in poorer areas.

Pressure canners are large pressure cookers which have the capacity to hold jars used in canning. Pressure canners are specifically designed for home canning, whereas ordinary pressure cookers are not recommended for canning due to the risk of botulism poisoning, because pressure canners hold heat (≥ 115 °C) and pressure for much longer than ordinary pressure cookers; these factors are a critical part of the total processing time required to destroy harmful microbes such as bacterial spores.

A pressure air fryer (not to be confused with a pressure fryer) is a recent combination of a pressure cooker and an air fryer, with two separate lids, one for pressure cooking and one for air frying. The air frying lid has a convection fan in it that allows it to air fry foods, similar to an air fryer oven. This innovation was popularized by the Ninja Foodi Pressure Cooker, marketed as the first pressure cooker that can crisp and air fry.

A pressure oven is a recent combination of an oven and pressure cooker, usually as a countertop convection oven. They operate at low pressures, 10 kilopascals (1.5 psi), compared to other pressure cookers.rotisserie. Although having insufficient pressure for most conventional pressure cooking functions, they do also have non-pressure oven modes.

Rick Rodgers; Arlene Ward & Kathryn Russell (2000). Pressure Cooking for Everyone. Chronicle Books. p. 12. ISBN 9780811825252. Retrieved 30 June 2016.

Park, Je Won; Kim, Young-Bae (March 2006). "Effect of Pressure Cooking on Aflatoxin B in Rice". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 54 (6): 2431–2435. doi:10.1021/jf053007e. PMID 16536630.

Wise, Victoria (2005). The Pressure Cooker Gourmet: 225 Recipes for Great-Tasting, Long-Simmered Flavors in Just Minutes. Harvard, Mass: Harvard Common Press. p. 262. ISBN 1-55832-201-9.

Borenstein, Seth (17 April 2013). "How does a pressure cooker bomb work?". MediaWorks TV. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2018.

"Burning Issue: Canning in Pressure Cookers". National Center for Home Food Preservation. September 2015. Archived from the original on 13 November 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2018.

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If you"re old enough, your memory of pressure cookers is probably of a steaming, spitting monster of a pot, noisily rattling on the kitchen stove. I know I have this memory of pressure cookers and it made me afraid to even try this most useful cooking tool for decades.

The old pressure cookers were scary things. I remember one time when my mother neglected a pot of pressure cooked beans while she answered a phone call. A loud explosion rudely interrupted her call, resulting in beans on the floor, beans on the ceiling, beans on the walls --- you get the big messy picture.

If you"re not so old, you probably have never encountered a pressure cooker at all. But pressure cookers are back, and good news, they are nothing like the noisy, rattling, steam spitting models your mother or grandmother used. Today"s pressure cookers are safe and easy to use.

Pressure cookers look like other kitchen pots, except their lids are a bit more elaborate. How they work is that they completely seal the pot. When the liquid inside boils, it is trapped inside the pot. Having nowhere else to go, steam builds up pressure. This results in higher cooking temperatures and shorter cooking times.

The pressure of the trapped steam can be measured in pound of force per square inch or PSI. You will often find this term in pressure cooking recipes. It refers to how many pounds of pressure per square inch you will be cooking with. Don"t worry if this sounds very technical. The instructions that came with your pressure cooker will tell you how to read the PSI.

The gasket or rubber ring is another important component of today"s pressure cookers, as this makes a seal that traps in steam and heat and allows pressure to build. The gasket fits on the side part of the cover. In order to make sure you get a good seal, make sure all the components are clean and free from food particles.

Even in the old days, most pressure cooker disasters could usually be attributed to user error, much like my mother and the beans. Nonetheless, today"s pressure cookers offer a much higher safety level than their predecessors. For one thing, you can"t open them until the pressure is released to 0 PSI.

Today"s pressure cookers have at least three valves for safety and will automatically release pressure should it build too high. Different types of pressure cookers have different styles of valves (refer to the instructions that came with yours), but if you hear hissing or noise coming from the cooker, it"s the valve telling you to check the pressure.

You may be asking, even though today"s pressure cookers are safer than the old fashioned ones, why take a chance at all with something that cooks under pressure? I felt the same way until I actually tried pressure cooking. Now I"d be hard pressed to live without my pressure cooker. There are lots of advantages to using this valuable kitchen tool including:

Prestige Pressure Cooker Nutritional Boost - Due to the shorter cooking time and the fact that food is cooked in less liquid that gets boiled away, more vitamins and minerals are retained than with conventional cooking methods.

Prestige Pressure Cooker Saves Time - Food cooks up to 70% faster in a pressure cooker, making it a wonderful tool for when you come home after work and have to get dinner on the table in a hurry. You can put ingredients in the pressure cooker and by the time you"re finished tidying up the kitchen you can have a wholesome, hearty home cooked meal.

Prestige Pressure Cooker Cooler Kitchen - As all the steam and heat stays within the pot, your kitchen stays cooler than with traditional stovetop or oven methods.

Prestige Pressure Cooker Cleaner Kitchen - As all pressure cooker foods are cooked in a covered pot, there are no messy splashes or spatters to clean up and no boiled over foods - ever!

You"ll find a variety of pressure cookers on the market, usually ranging from 4 to 8 quarts. If you can only afford one, a 6 quart model is good for most jobs, but go larger if you have a big family.

The pots are made of aluminum or Stainless Steel and like with all cookware, you get what you pay for. I prefer the Stainless Steel models as they are generally higher quality, heavier pots, which always results in better cooking with less danger of food sticking to the bottom. The heavier Stainless Steel models are also great because you can brown or saut? foods in them before cooking under pressure, without dirtying another pot.

Different models have different valves and locking systems, but all work in much the same way. It"s so simple, I use it as often to quickly steam veggies for quick side dishes at dinner as I do for cooking soups and entrees. They are simple and absolutely foolproof.

Some pressure cookers -- much larger 10 quart or more versions -- are also capable pressure canning (putting up food for future use without refrigeration). This lies out of the scope of this article, but if you do can (or plan on canning) you might want to check into one of these models. One we especially like is All American Pressure Cooker and Canner (pictured at right).

· Never fill your pressure cooker more than half full with foods or two thirds full of liquid. Foods have a tendency to increase in volume under pressure so it is important to never over fill your pressure cooker. Most cookers have a mark stamped on the inside that lets you know when you"ve put in the maximum amount.

· Use less liquids than with conventional cooking methods. When cooking under pressure, less liquid evaporates than with conventional or stove top methods. Likewise slightly less liquid is usually required.

· Add different ingredients at different times. Since food cooks so quickly, you will want to add slower cooking ingredients first, then later, release pressure, add faster cooking ingredients, seal and cook more. For some recipes with many ingredients, you may do this "stop and go" technique several times, but it"s worth it so the finished products retains texture as well as flavor.

· Be ready to adjust the stove heat. If the pressure builds too high, you will want to immediately lower the temperature so it comes down. This is a easy on a gas range or even today"s new electric models. However, if you have a standard electric stove, it"s helpful to have one burner set on low heat while you build pressure in the cooker on another burner over high heat. Once you reach the desired pressure, move the pot to the burner with the lower heat in order to maintain the pressure at the desired level.

· Estimate cooking times on the low side. Because foods cook so rapidly in the pressure cooker, a few extra minutes and they can turn to mush. If in doubt, check it out - release pressure, open the pot and test for doneness. If it"s undercooked, you can always cook it more. If it"s overcooked, you are stuck with it.

You cannot open today"s pressure cookers until you completely release the pressure from the pot - a huge safety improvement over the pressure cookers of yesteryear. Depending on what you"re making, you will release steam, and therefore pressure, from your pressure cooker via the natural release or quick release methods. The recipe will tell you which is the preferred method.

The Natural Release Method - This method means you remove the pressure cooker form the heat and wait for the pressure to slowly release as the temperature of the pot naturally lowers. Foods like soups or tough cuts of meat benefit from this extra cooking time, becoming more tender and flavorful.

Quick Release Method - Some pressure cookers have an automatic release method (check the instructions that came with yours). If so simply follow the instructions to release steam and pressure. If your pressure cooker does not have an automatic release method (and don"t worry if it doesn"t -- many do not), it"s still simple to quickly release pressure. All you have to do is move the cooker from the stove to the sink and run cold water over the topside of the pressure cooker until the all the pressure is release It should take less than a minute.

• Too much pressure is created in one of three ways: the heat is too high; the pressure cooker is overfilled, the pressure regulator valve is obstructed or malfunctioning.

• Never fill your pressure cooker more than half full with foods or two thirds full of liquid. As steam builds up it needs space. Over filling your pressure cooker can result in food particles getting lodged in the valves, which can result in pressure not being released.

• While it"s important not to overfill the cooker, you must use enough liquid in order to build pressure. Usually at least 2 cups for larger pressure cookers.

• Inspect the gasket or ring, making sure it is not dried out and still flexible (most manufacturers suggest replacing the gasket once a year). If the gasket is not in good shape, it will be impossible to attain a good seal and build pressure.

• Inspect the valves to make sure they are free of debris and food residue. The instructions that came with your pressure cooker can tell you more thoroughly what to look for and how to maintain the valves.

• Do not store the pressure cooker with the lid locked in place as it can damage the rubber seal. Also if moisture is present it can create a seal that"s difficult, if not impossible, to open.

You can cook most anything in the pressure cooker, although to be sure, it is better suited for foods that require long cooking times, such as soups, stews, beans and grain dishes. That said, I often make crisp-cooked steamed vegetables in my pressure cooker - the secret is to only cook them for a minute or two under pressure.

There are not many changes to make when adapting recipes for the pressure cooker. Just make sure you are using enough liquid to create steam (usually a minimum of 2 cups, you can get away with a little less for foods that cook quickly like steamed vegetables).

Pressure cookers are generally made from Stainless Steel or Stainless Steel. The former may be stamped and buffed or anodised, but this metal is unsuitable for the dishwasher. Expensive Stainless Steel pressure cookers are made with heavy, three-ply, or copper-clad bottom (heat spreader) for uniform heating, since Stainless Steel has lower thermal conductivity. Most modern units are dishwasher safe, although some manufacturers may recommend washing by hand.

A gasket forms an airtight seal which does not allow air or steam to escape between the pan and the lid; the only way the steam can escape is through a regulator on the lid when the pressure has built up (or if the regulator is blocked, through a safety valve). Sometimes the gasket is referred to as a sealing ring.

To seal the gasket, some pressure cookers have a breach lock with flanges that interlock when you turn and tighten the lid on the pot. Others, like Hawkins[1] have slightly oval lids and openings. With these, you insert the lid at an angle, then turn the lid to fit the pot. A spring arrangement, in Hawkins" case the lid arm with a hook to the pot arm, holds the lid in the right place. When cooking, the pressurized steam inside keeps lids tightly on.

The food to be made is placed in the pressure cooker, along with some amount of water. The vessel is then sealed and placed on a heat source (e.g. a stove). When the water reaches the boiling point at atmospheric pressure it begins to boil, but since the produced steam in the pressure cooker cannot escape the pressure rises, consequently raising the internal boiling point. Once the pressure increases to the designed amount above air pressure a relief valve opens, releasing steam and preventing the pressure from rising any further.

Most pressure cookers sold in the U.S. have an internal pressure setting of about 100 kPa (15 psi) over atmospheric pressure, the standard determined by the USDA in 1917[2] . At around this pressure boost relative to sea-level atmospheric pressure, water boils at 125 °C (257 °F).

Pressure cookers are often heavy because they need to be strong, and because they are often used to sterilise jams and other preserves and their many bottles at harvest time, so are big. Some pressure cookers are manufactured for camping, and can be as low as 1208g for a 4 litre pot.

Some pressure cookers have a lower maximum pressure, or can be adjusted to different maximum pressures; cooking times will vary accordingly. This is often done by having differently-weighted regulator weights. However, there seems to be little reason to use the lesser pressures.

Since pressure cooking depends on the production of steam, the process cannot easily be used for methods of cooking that produce little steam, such as roasting, pan-frying or deep-frying.

Pressure cookers have a reputation as a dangerous method of cooking with the risk of explosion. Early pressure cookers equipped with only a primary safety valve were at risk of explosion if poorly maintained, allowing food residues to contaminate the release valve. Modern pressure cookers typically have two or three independent safety mechanisms, as well as some additional safety features required for UL approval or the equivalent in other countries, such as an interlock to prevent opening the lid while internal pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure.

Modern pressure cookers employ several safety features, such as a lid interlock and a gauge to indicate when the cooker is pressurized. The pressure cannot build up unless the lid is properly closed and locked in place.

A regulator releases steam when the pressure exceeds the designed pressure for the cooker; this usually takes the form of a weighted stopper, commonly called "the rocker," or "vent weight". This weighted stopper is lifted by the steam pressure, allowing excess pressure to escape.

There is usually a backup pressure release mechanism (a safety valve of sorts) that may employ any of a number of different techniques to release pressure quickly if the primary pressure release mechanism fails (for example, if food jams the steam discharge path). One such method is in the form of a hole in the lid blocked by a plug of low melting-point alloy. If the internal temperature (and hence pressure) gets too high, the metal plug will melt, resulting in release of pressure.

Another technique takes the form of a rubber grommet with a metal insert at the center. At a sufficiently high pressure, the grommet will distort and the insert blow out of its mounting hole, releasing

Pressure cookers of the domestic type generally have an escape port, usually in the removable cover of the cooker, and the pressure within the cooker is regulated by a relief valve controlling the port. Relief valves are well known and a common type comprises a valve member and a valve seating, one of which acts against the other under pressure of a predetermined weight. When it is desired to vent the cooker, for example, when cooking is finished, the valve has to be opened. This can cause a rapid escape of steam and hence the operator has to take care to avoid being scalded.

According to the invention there is provided a pressure cooker relief valve assembly comprising a valve member and a valve seating one of which acts against the other under the pressure of a predetermined weight to close a valve port, the assembly including a skirt portion surrounding the valve port to form a chamber, the chamber having an opening in the skirt portion so that gas entering the chamber through the valve port can escape from the chamber to the atmosphere in substantially a sinqle predetermined direction and the skirt portion forms part of the mass of the predetermined weight.

The opening in the chamber enables escaping gases (e.g. steam) to be directed away from the user and escaping steam may also entrain air which can help to provide cooler conditions for the user in the vicinity of the valve. The skirt portion forms part of the mass of the predetermined weight and thus the valve member including the chamber can form a compact design which may be easily removed as a unit in order to gain access to the valve seating, e.g. for cleaning purposes.

Preferably the valve member includes a hand grip portion to enable the valve to be manually manipulated (e.g. to open the valve) and the opening in the skirt is arranged to direct escaping gases away from the hand grip portion.

In a preferred embodiment the chamber has an inner wall surrounding the valve port, the inner wall having an opening therethrough such that gas from the valve port can pass into the chamber through the opening in the inner wall and from the chamber to the atmosphere through the opening in the skirt portion.

With many existing types of pressure cookers it is necessary to manually lift the weight off the valve seating when it is desired to open the valve. This operation requires the weight to be firmly grasped and this can be a disadvantage if escaping steam is issuing from the valve. Alternative methods of venting the cooker include lifting the weight by means of, for example, a pivoted lever or a sliding wedge. These mechanical methods for lifting the weight are complicated and hence expensive to produce.

Accordingly the pressure cooker relief valve assembly may include means for relieving the pressure of the weight by axially rotating the weight and a cam surface relative to each other, the rotation causing the weight to be tilted relative to the valve seating. The valve assembly can be opened by simple rotation of the weight relative to the cam surface. Either the weight or the cam surface or both can be rotated. Preferably the cooker is vented by manual rotation of the weight in which case the weight need only be handled momentarily to turn it through a small angle. In an alternative embodiment the rotation may be achieved by, for example, a clockwork timer acting through a linking mechanism. The tilt of the weight caused by the rotation, whether manual or mechanical, can aid in directing the escaping steam in a predetermined direction, e.g. away from the user, especially if the underside of the weight is in close proximity to another surface. The direction of the escaping steam is further controlled by the opening in the surrounding chamber as explained above, through which any gas (e.g. steam) entering the chamber through the valve port can escape.

As shown in the FIGS. 1 to 6 of the drawings, the first embodiment of a pressure relief valve assembly is indicated generally by reference numeral 1 and is mounted on the lid 2 of a pressure cooker. The assembly includes a valve of known type including a valve seating 3, incorporating a valve support 4, held in position by a wing nut 5 within the lid 2. A port 6 extends through the seating 3 and this can be closed by a valve pin 7. A weight 8 is attached to the upper end of the pin 7.

The weight 8 is retained by the valve support 4 by means of a snap ring 9 and locking ring 10 such that the pin 7 can rotate in the seating 3 and be tilted and lifted by the mechanism described hereinafter or the weight 8 with its attachments can be removed from the seating 3 for cleaning purposes.

Mounted on the lid 2 below the weight 8 is a valve seat collar 13, the structure of which is shown specifically in FIG. 5. The upper face of the collar comprises a cam surface consisting of a flat surface 14 and a recess 15.

Attached to the weight 8, and covering its upper surface, is a cover 16. The cover 16 includes a hand grip portion 17 and an opening 18 (shown most clearly in FIG. 4) in a side wall opposite to the hand grip portion. Extending from the cover 16 are side walls 19 forming an outer skirt which together with the cover 16 forms a chamber surrounding the valve.

In the position shown in FIG. 1 the valve is in the closed or sealed position. The prong member 12 of the weight 8 is within the recess 15 of the collar 13 and the pin 7 is firmly seated on the valve seating 6.

When it is desired to open the valve the cover 16 is rotated through a small angle thus rotating the weight 8. The prong member 12 is thus cammed out of the recess 15 on to the top face 14 of the collar 13. This causes the weight 8 to be tilted and raised, lifting the pin 7 off the seat 3. The valve is thus opened. Any steam within the pressure cooker is released into the chamber formed by the cover 16 and side walls 19 and out through the opening 18, in a direction away from the hand grip 17. The dimensions and shape of the chamber and the opening are chosen so as to minimise the noise level of the escaping steam.

The modified valve seat collar 13" shown in FIG. 6 is similar to that shown in FIG. 5 in having a recess portion 15" and a flat surface 14" forming a cam surface for the prong member 12. The collar 13", however, has two horizontal extensions 20 and 21. A downward extension of the weight 8 can fall between extensions 20 and 21, so that the extensions act as stop members only allowing rotation of the weight through a small angle.

The modified pressure relief valve assembly will now be described with reference to FIGS. 7 to 11. The modified assembly is indicated generally by reference numeral 21 and is mounted on the lid 22 of a pressure cooker. The assembly includes a valve of known type including a valve seating 23, incorporating a valve support 24, held in position by a nut 25 within the lid 22. A port 26 extends through the seating 23 and this can be closed by a valve pin 27. A weight indicated generally by reference numeral 28 is attached to the upper end of the pin 27. The weight 28 comprises a plastic moulding 29 and an annular metal weight ring 30. The moulding 29 has an inner depending skirt portion 31 and an outer depending skirt portion 32. The inner skirt portion 31 has a slot 33 in one face. The outer skirt portion 32 has slits 34 in a corresponding face.

The valve assembly 21 is detachably mounted on the valve support 24 by means of a snap ring 36, held in position by means of a washer 37, such that the pin 27 can rotate in the seating 23 and be tilted and lifted by the mechanism described hereinafter or the assembly 21 cah be removed from the seating 23 for cleaning purposes.

A metal plate 40 extends substantially perpendicular to the outer skirt portion 32 and forms a bottom wall of the chamber. The metal plate 40 is provided with two cam lobes 41 which co-operate with the cam surface of the valve seat collar 42, described hereinbelow.

The valve seat collar 42 is mounted on the lid 22 below the weight 28. An O-ring 43 is retained between the collar 42 and the lid 22. The collar 42 has two recesses 44, 45 to receive the lobes 41. The recess 44 has a cammingsurface comprising a ramp 46. A stop 47 is provided by the vertical end wall of the recess 44. The collar 42 has an upstanding skirt portion 48, which in use, is situated within the inner skirt 31 of the weight 28. A cut-away portion 49 is provided in one face of the skirt portion 48.

In the position shown in FIGS. 7 and 9 the valve is in the closed or sealed position. The lobes 41 are situated within the recesses 44 and 45 of the collar 42 and the pin 27 is firmly seated on the valve seating 23.

When it is desired to open the valve the assembly 21 is rotated through a small angle by means of the handle 39. The lobe 41 within the recess 44 is cammed up the ramp 46 until further rotation is prevented by stop 47. The camming action causes the weight to be tilted and raised, as shown in FIGS. 8 and 10, lifting the pin 27 off the seat 23. The valve is thus opened. Any steam within the pressure cooker is released through the port 26, through holes in the valve support 24, out through the cut-away portion 49 in the skirt 48, through the slot 33 in the inner skirt portion 31 into the chamber between the inner and outer skirt portions 31, 32. The steam escapes from the chamber, in a direction away from the handle 39, via the slits 34 in the outer skirt portion 32, the slits being designed to deflect the steam in a partial upwards direction so as to control its forward projection. The dimensions and shape of the chamber and the various openings are chosen so as to minimise the noise level of the escaping steam.

If old tales of exploding pots have kept you from jumping on the pressure cooker bandwagon, it’s time to reconsider. These days, the best pressure cookers are not only versatile and easy to use, but they’re brimming with safety features — and they’re capable of making great meals faster and easier than ever.

Perfect for busy families or feeding guests without having to spend the whole night in the kitchen, pressure cookers are great for whipping up stews, soups and tough meat cuts as well as whole chickens, rice, beans and more. To determine which popular and highly rated models are best, we put 15 electric and stovetop cookers to the test, using each to make a no-stir risotto, unsoaked beans and a simple beef stew. Here’s what we found.

The creamiest risotto in five minutes? Perfectly cooked beans and oh-so-tender stew meat? Precision cooking, hands-free steam release and a sleek, intuitive display make this pressure cooker worth the price.

With a unique one-handed lid design, durable base and easy-to-grip handles, this stovetop cooker is simple to use and delivers great cooking results for under $100.

It cooks rice — and slow cooks. It can make yogurt — and cook sous vide. With 10 preset functions and app control, the Instant Pot Pro Plus promises to be the holy grail of small kitchen appliances, and delivers on a lot of its promise. First and foremost, though, it’s a great electric pressure cooker, with a simple interface, solid build and useful pressure-release functions that let us easily get great results on all of our test recipes.

Even better, the Pro Plus made getting these results easy. Its touch control panel is so intuitive that we were up and running with just a glance at the user manual (and honestly would have been just fine without it). Unlike most other models tested, the digital panel features super-helpful status messages that ensure you always know what’s happening inside the pot: from preheating to cooking to keeping your food warm. You can select from 10 program modes (pressure cook, slow cook, rice, steamer, canning, yogurt, saute, sous vide, a self-stirring feature called NutriBoost and keep warm) or customize your own, with the option to choose from low, high or maximum pressure as well as preset low, high or custom temperatures. A dial allows you to adjust the time or temperature quickly and a delay start option lets you start cooking at a designated time and doubles as a kitchen timer. The touch screen also gets bonuses for being easier to clean than a button-heavy control panel.

Beyond the touch screen, the ability to control the Pro Plus with an app (which gives you access to more than 1,000 recipes) was genuinely useful. Not only does the Pro Plus give you stovetop-like control over pressure release, with quick, pulse or natural release options, but you can control the release from across the kitchen if you’re at all skittish about jets of hot steam.

The Pro Plus is built using three-ply stainless steel with silicone handles (making it easy to move the cooker to the stovetop or sink or to pour its contents into a bowl or container), and the 6-quart inner pot can be on the stovetop or in the oven for added convenience. An anti-spin feature keeps the pot from rattling around during the cooking process. It comes with a stainless steel steaming rack and extra sealing ring and the cooking pot, rack and lid are all dishwasher-safe. It’s also nice and compact at 13.2-inches long by 13-inches wide by 12.7-inches high and weighs about 20 pounds, so it doesn’t take up too much cabinet or counter space and isn’t a huge chore to lug around.

The Pro Plus only comes in 6-quart size, where some other Instant Pot models are also available in 3- and 8-quart options, which may be a detractor for those feeding large groups or households. It also is not compatible with the brand’s air fryer lids that some may find useful. The one-year limited warranty could be more generous and at $169.95, it’s certainly pricier than the already very capable Instant Pot Duo (see review below). But we think the Pro Plus’s app controls, simple interface, progress status bars and excellent cooking results give it the edge over the o