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Americans have long mythologized the frontier. It isn"t just about stories of past deeds but how Americans connect their history to today. From technology to social ideas, the leading edge of any field is typically referred to as a "frontier," a symbol of settlers creating something entirely new. Frederick Turner Jackson was a historian who looked not just at what had happened in the past but what it meant for people in his time and how it had shaped his present society. How did Frederick Jackson Turner interpret the Frontier in a way that resonated so strongly with other Americans of the late nineteenth century and beyond?

From the middle of the country, the city of Chicago, Jackson described what he felt the frontier meant to America. Twenty-seven million people attended the fair to see innovations such as the Ferris Wheel before the fair closed two days ahead of its planned six-month run due to the mayor of Chicago"s assassination. Turner delivered his speech on the frontier to the American Historical Society gathering. Although his speech had a minor impact at the time, the society reprinted it where it lived on to gain its later stature.

While Turner was delivering his speech, another creator of the mythic western frontier, Buffalo Bill Cody, performed his famous Wild West Show outside the fair.

Turner viewed the frontier as the essential element in defining the American character. His work began by noting that the bulletin of the Superintendent of the Census for 1890 had recently stated that there was no longer a frontier line and closed by saying that after 400 years of frontier activity, the first period of American history had ended. With the frontier intertwined with the American past, Turner interpreted it as having shaped America.

The central idea of Frederick Turner Jackson"s Frontier Thesis is that as families went west into undeveloped lands, liberty, equality, and democracy arose from a condition where the highly developed society to the East was left behind and with it the old culture. At first, this East was Europe and later the East coast of the United States. As urbanization took hold and further moved west with successive waves,

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meetings, a young professor named Frederick Jackson Turner presented a paper that he titled, �The Significance of the Frontier in American History.� Turner tried to explain why the United States had developed differently from European societies. He was particularly interested in explaining why America was so much more egalitarian that Europe. His explanation was that the frontier had acted as a safety valve to prevent trouble. He also thought that the frontier was an environment that rewarded a particular set of character traits, such as coarseness, strength, inquisitiveness, and self-reliance.

Turner was making two somewhat tangential points as well. The Census Bureau has recently mentioned in a report about the 1890 census that it was no longer possible to draw a �frontier line� on the Census Bureau map of the United States. Settlements, both large and small, so thoroughly dotted the map that the �frontier line� was no longer a meaningful idea. Turner claimed in his paper that the frontier had been so important in shaping the American character and directing the course of American history that the frontier�s absence could not help but change America dramatically.

Second, and easiest for modern viewers to miss, is that Turner was actually staking out territory on the �academic frontier� and claiming it for his own. The words �American History� attract no notice today because practically everyone in America takes courses in high school and college with exactly that title. But in 1893 that was not the case. History did not yet include �American History� � the United States was just too young and unimportant. �History,� as Turner himself had learned it at Johns Hopkins University and elsewhere, was about ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, feudal Europe, and the rise of republics and monarchies in Europe. Proper historians had little interest in thirteen small rebellious colonies that had broken loose from the British Empire less than a century before Turner was born. Turner was part of a new group of young historians who �de-colonize� history in America by turning the focus of the discipline on America itself: �American

Beginning in the 1830s and continuing into the 1890s, the United States Army acted as the federal government’s principal agent of expansion into the western frontier. One historian writes, “At any given time during this period, fewer than 12,000 soldiers occupied the region exceeding 2 million square miles and occupied some 200,000 Native Americans. Except during major campaigns, the troops remained scattered in units of 50-200 men at more than 100 posts, forts, and cantonments across the frontier.”

“The frontier is the outer edge of the wave,” writes historian Frederick Jackson Turner, “the meeting-point between savagery and civilization…the line of most rapid and effective Americanization.” It was the U.S. Army’s role to facilitate this Americanization and expansion into the western frontier. In the quarter century following the Civil War, the Army’s operational experience came to be known as the Indian Wars era.

In the years preceding the Civil War, expressions of the urge to expand into the Western frontier can be found in publications of the day. John Louis O’Sullivan wrote in the July-August 1845 issue of the United States Magazine and Democratic Review, “Our manifest destiny is to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.” One day in 1851 John Babsone Lane Soule coined the slogan “Go West, young man and grow with the country” in a rather obscure Indiana newspaper called the Terre Haute Express. Horace Greeley, editor of the nationally distributed New York Tribune, popularized the slogan beginning with an 1865 editorial. This phrase became a mantra for manifest destineers and expansionists into the western frontier.

As increasing numbers heeded the call to “Go West,” conflicts with Native Americans escalated. Prior to the Civil War, these conflicts were limited in scope and occurred at a time when the Native American could withdraw or be forced into the frontier. But, by 1865 this “safety valve” was being compromised by multiple travel routes and settlements across the frontier. Inevitably a guerrilla war, characterized by skirmishes, pursuits, massacres, raids, expeditions, battles and campaigns, ensued.

When the eleventh Census was taken June 1, 1890, the population of United States was calculated to be 62,622,250. The U.S. Census Bureau’s Bulletin No. 12 of April 1891 stated that the frontier line of settlement was “so broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can hardly be said to be a frontier line…. It cannot, therefore, any longer have a place in the census reports.” In effect the frontier of the United States no longer existed and, therefore, the tracking of westward migration would no longer be tabulated in the census.

This trend prompted Frederick Jackson Turner to develop his milestone Frontier Thesis which he presented at the World Columbian Exposition in 1893. One historian characterizes this thesis, “For Turner, continental expansion, symbolized by the ever moving frontier creating more free land, was the driving, dynamic factor of American progress. It had been since Christopher Columbus, and remained so until the Census Bureau erased the frontier with the keystroke of a typewriter. Without the economic energy created by expanding the frontier, he warned, America’s political and social institutions would stagnate. If one adhered to this way of thinking, America must expand or die.”

This exhibit conveys social and cultural facets of military life in the frontier west through images, quotations, and texts derived from the resources of the Dickinson Research Center. While not a balanced accounting of life due to a focus on the military and a lack of a Native American perspective, the exhibit does explicate the political context for the “Indian Question” issue, the consequent jurisdictional problem faced by the executive and legislative branches of the federal government, and its effect on the lives of both soldiers and Indians on the frontier.

With the closing of the United States frontier, one could pose rhetorical questions about other frontiers and who might be involved in their exploration. Can you think of other geographic frontiers that will be and are being explored? The oceans? Though the oceans cover 70% of the Earth’s surface, scientists estimate that only 5% has been explored so far.

Space, “the final [and ultimate] frontier,” is another obvious answer. One commentator writes “The exploration of Space creates unlimited opportunities for turning billions of people’s dreams into realities. To make space exploration possible, our leaders need the public’s acceptance of the dangers & opportunities: The major elements for space exploration are antimatter energy, space facilities, spacecraft, science & technology, and economic goals.”

What role, if any, will the military have in space exploration? Do you think colonies will be established on the moon? on Mars? Will the military provide the security for their colonization? In what ways are the exploration and permanent human settlement of the space frontier comparable to the exploration, “taming”, and settlement of the West? If encountered, how would extraterrestrials and their worlds be treated?

However, the principal barracks relaxation for those frontier regulars without families stationed at remote posts was visiting and talking among themselves. In 1893 Private B. C. Goodin wrote in his diary that he spent his off-duty time reading in quarters, “strolling, playing cribbage, singing and dancing in quarters, attending an “entertainment” in the post chapel, and playing jokes on his comrades in the barracks.

However, as historian Don Rickey, Jr. writes, “Isolation, boredom, and monotony characterized the life at the western posts. Because these frontier forts were intended to serve as focal points for offensive and defensive operations against unsettled hostile Indians, they were usually located in regions little touched by white civilization…The Regular Army had no rotation plans during the Indian campaigns, and troops frequently were assigned to the same stations for several years.”

Sanitation and hygiene were considerable issues for any commander of a frontier post. In 1874, General Luther P. Bradley reported that at Fort Laramie the policing of the Laramie River was bad “and the peaks of manure from the cavalry stables and the filth and rubbish from the post, all of which has been deposited for many years on the north side and immediately contiguous to the post, is offensive in every particular.” Moreover, Post Surgeon Hartsnuff complained bitterly of intolerable conditions with respect to these issues in 1877 reporting, The hygienic condition of the post is objectionable. Water closets in the rear of the commanding officers’ quarters, for four or five years reported as a nuisance, still stand, and continue to saturate the atmosphere with noxious odors….Putting of manure, offal, debris, dirt and filth into the pond above and immediately contiguous to the post is productive of the usual results…The stench is at times almost unendurable, especially to the officers who live in nearest proximity to this generative apparatus; besides, a considerable portion of the garrison and all of the stock drink the water of the Laramie that is contaminated from this source…”

Dress uniform elements, including dress helmets with dyed horsehair plumes, pictured here are largely from the 1880s and an unusual sight on frontier posts.

Through these cartoons, Nast, a Republican and supporter of the military, ridiculed and condemned the Democratic Congress for even the suggestion of reducing the U.S. Army during an era of Indian warfare on the frontier. More specifically, these cartoons lampoon the House of Representatives bill, H. R. 2546, which provided for the gradual reduction of the Army of the United States. On May 23, 1874, Republican Indiana Representative John Coburn from the Committee on Military Affairs reported the bill. On June 1 the House passed the bill and requested the concurrence of the Senate. The bill was referred back to the Committee on Military Affairs.

Except for the gauntlets, Gibhart is wearing all non-regulation clothing and arms. Dressed in a frontiersman outfit of tailored and fringed buckskin, this military scout sports a Colt single action Army revolver in a civilian holster with a money/cartridge belt. He holds a Marlin rifle. Troop F of the 8th Cavalry served at Fort Meade, South Dakota, before being transferred to Fort Sill, Oklahoma on April 24, 1898.

With more than six decades of proven leadership backing it up, the 2023 Nissan Frontier is the right-sized pickup that’s as convenient for everyday work in the city as it is thrilling for adventures in the great outdoors. The 2023 Nissan Frontier is on sale now with a starting Manufacturer’s Suggested Retail Price (MSRP)4 of $29,190. (See full pricing sheet for information on all grades.)

All new for the 2022 model year, the 2023 Frontier lineup features enhancements reflecting customer feedback. A Midnight Edition package is now available on SV Crew Cab that enhances the truck’s appearance with 17-inch black-painted alloy wheels; black outside mirrors, lower bumper and grille; black exterior badging; black interior accents and a black headliner; and LED fog lights, headlights and daytime running lights.

The 2023 Frontier SV Crew Cab Long Wheelbase model adds the SV Convenience Package as standard equipment, featuring a heated leather steering wheel, heated front seats, spray-in bedliner, Utili-track® System with two adjustable tie-down cleats, under-rail bed lighting and more. The Frontier PRO-X® and PRO-4X® add wireless Apple CarPlay®, while the Pro Premium package also switches from black interior stitching to Lava Red stitching.

The 2023 Nissan Frontier makes a bold first impression thanks to its powerful front-end design, with a large grille, chiseled front bumper and commanding stance. At the rear, the tail lights appear to “clamp” the tailgate to the rear fenders, and an embossed “FRONTIER” detail adds extra visual interest to the tailgate.

Standard on all 2023 Frontier grades is a 310-horsepower, 3.8-liter direct-injection V6 engine, paired with a 9-speed automatic transmission. Coupled with the truck’s tough frame, the powertrain helps enable a towing capacity of up to 6,720 pounds (maximum, when properly equipped5).

The Frontier’s strong yet efficient powertrain delivers fuel economy ratings of up to an EPA-estimated 18 mpg city and 24 mpg highway for 4x2 models. 4x4 models are rated at 17 mpg city and 22 mpg highway6.

All Frontier grades (except PRO-X) are available with four-wheel drive to help provide additional traction on almost all surfaces. An electronic, shift-on-the-fly system allows drivers to easily switch between 2WD, 4HI and 4LO modes. 4x4 models also benefit from a steel front skid plate, front tow hooks, Hill Descent Control and a 4-wheel limited-slip system, which helps transfer power to the drive wheels with more grip on low-traction surfaces.

For those intending to spend more time away from pavement, the PRO-X and PRO-4X grades build upon Frontier’s already impressive credentials with the addition of Bilstein off-road shock absorbers and 17-inch wheels with all-terrain tires. The PRO-4X also features an electronic locking rear differential and additional underbody skid plates for extra protection from rocks and other obstacles.

As on all Nissan models, connected technology and advanced driver assistance are a core element of the Frontier’s package. The 7-inch Drive-Assist Display is the largest standard display gauge in the Frontier’s class7. An 8-inch infotainment touchscreen is standard while a 9-inch screen – one of the largest in the class2 – is available. Both Apple CarPlay® and Android Auto™ are included as standard for convenient smartphone connectivity, with wireless Apple CarPlay® included on the PRO-grade models. A wireless device charging pad also helps keep phones charged without cables on the PRO-grade models.

As standard, every 2023 Frontier features class-exclusive3 Intelligent Forward Collision Warning and Automatic Emergency Braking with Pedestrian Detection. In addition, every Frontier grade is available with Nissan Safety Shield® 360, adding features including Lane Departure Warning, Blind Spot Warning, Rear Cross Traffic Alert and Rear Automatic Braking. Intelligent Cruise Control is also available.

Comparison based on 2023 Frontier S vs. latest in-market Ward’s Small Truck segment. Intelligent Forward Collision Warning cannot prevent collisions. See Owner’s Manual for safety information. Based on manufacturer’s website.

Up to 6,720 lbs maximum towing for 2023 Nissan Frontier King Cab S 4x2. Towing varies by configuration. See Nissan Towing Guide and Owner’s Manual for additional information. Cargo and load capacity limited by weight and distribution. Always secure cargo.

Comparison based on 2023 Frontier S vs. latest in-market Ward’s Small Truck segment. Driving is serious business and requires your full attention. If you have to use the feature while driving, exercise extreme caution at all times so full attention may be given to vehicle operation. Based on manufacturer’s website.

The oil pump maintains oil pressure to lubricate internal components. Most oil pumps are positive displacement pumps, which deliver more oil than an engine needs. To address this, there’s a pressure relief valve located at the oil pump outlet. Its purpose is to open when engine oil pressure reaches a certain value. A problem with the pressure relief valve can cause damage to the engine oil filter and to the engine itself.

Under normal pressure conditions, the oil pressure relief valve is forced down against a spring. As a result, oil goes directly through the pump to the engine. As oil pressure created in the system increases, the valve’s piston is forced against the spring causing it to open. This allows oil to flow back into the crankcase preventing excessive oil pressure. The spring tension of the relief valve determines the maximum oil pressure.

Oil pump pressure relief valves can fail in either the open or closed position. This can cause damage to the engine oil filter and to the engine itself.

• A pressure relief valve that is stuck open can allow too much oil to bleed off. This results in a lack of oil pressure and catastrophic engine damage.

• A valve stuck closed will result in excessive oil pressure. This can blow out the oil galley plugs in the engine block. When this happens, the engine loses a large amount of oil and pressure drops. Internal components are starved of oil, causing them to quickly overheat and seize.

• Often when the pressure relief valve sticks closed, severe damage to the oil filter is the result. The extreme pressure causes the gasket that seals the oil filter to the engine block to fail which results in a severe oil leak and loss of lubrication to the engine.

Damage caused by a failed pressure relief valve typically results in an engine that will have to be rebuilt or replaced. Obviously, this is an expensive repair.

There is no sure way to prevent relief valve failure. In some cases, the valve just wears out over time. However, regular oil changes help prevent sludge and varnish build up, both of which can cause the valve to stick. Changing your vehicle’s engine oil according to the maintenance schedule is the best way to prevent relief valve problems.